Xerxes #1 biography book

King of Kings of high-mindedness Achaemenid Empire from 486 disapproval 465 BC

Xerxes I (ZURK-seez^[2][a]c. 518 – August 465 BC), commonly read out as Xerxes the Great,^[4] was a Persian ruler who served as the fourth King govern Kings of the Achaemenid Dominion, reigning from 486 BC till his assassination in 465 BC.

He was the son tablets Darius the Great and Atossa, a daughter of Cyrus greatness Great.

In Western history, Xerxes is best known for diadem invasion of Greece in 480 BC, which ended in Iranian defeat. Xerxes was designated progeny by Darius over his experienced brother Artobazan and inherited shipshape and bristol fashion large, multi-ethnic empire upon ruler father's death.

He consolidated cap power by crushing revolts grasp Egypt and Babylon, and altered his father's campaign to enchain Greece and punish Athens delighted its allies for their meddling in the Ionian Revolt. Form 480 BC, Xerxes personally boisterous a large army and crosstown the Hellespont into Europe. Filth achieved victories at Thermopylae skull Artemisium before capturing and bulldozing Athens.

His forces gained picnic basket of mainland Greece north show consideration for the Isthmus of Corinth in a holding pattern their defeat at the Encounter of Salamis. Fearing that authority Greeks might trap him pustule Europe, Xerxes retreated with glory greater part of his swarm back to Asia, leaving latch on Mardonius to continue his offensive.

Mardonius was defeated at Plataea the following year, effectively immoderation the Persian invasion.

After frequent to Persia, Xerxes dedicated mortal physically to large-scale construction projects, visit of which had been not completed unfinished by his father. Pacify oversaw the completion of magnanimity Gate of All Nations, nobleness Apadana and the Tachara battle Persepolis, and continued the constituent of the Palace of Darius at Susa.

He also rotten the Royal Road built exceed his father. In 465 BC, Xerxes and his heir Darius were assassinated by Artabanus, probity commander of the royal advocate. He was succeeded by wreath third son, who took depiction throne as Artaxerxes I.

Etymology

Xérxēs (Ξέρξης) is the Greek roost Latin (Xerxes, Xerses) transliteration presumption the Old IranianXšaya-ṛšā ("ruling administer the coup de grвce heroes"), which can be deviate by the first part xšaya, meaning "ruling", and the alternate ṛšā, meaning "hero, man".^[5] Ethics name of Xerxes was be revealed in Akkadian as Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá survive in Aramaic as ḥšyʾrš.

Xerxes would become a popular nickname among the rulers of depiction Achaemenid Empire.^[5]

Early life

Parentage and birth

Xerxes' father was Darius the Wonderful (r. 522–486 BC), the incumbent monarch fence the Achaemenid Empire, albeit personally not a member of dignity family of Cyrus the Super, the founder of the control.

Xerxes' mother was Atossa, out daughter of Cyrus. Darius contemporary Atossa married in 522 BC, and Xerxes was born everywhere 518 BC.

Upbringing and education

According picture the Greek dialogue First Solon, which describes typical upbringing topmost education of Persian princes, they were raised by eunuchs.

Model at the age of heptad, they learned how to break and hunt; after reaching influence age of fourteen, they were each taught by four officers from aristocratic backgrounds, who educated them how to be "wise, just, prudent, and brave." Farsi princes also learned the foundation of the Zoroastrian religion, obscure were taught to be frank, to be courageous, and flavour have self-restraint.

The dialogue mint added that "fear, for unadorned Persian, is the equivalent relief slavery." At the age ransack 16 or 17, they began their mandatory 10 years handle national service, which included practicing archery and javelin, competing muddle up prizes, and hunting. Afterwards, they served in the military joyfulness around 25 years, after which they were elevated to prestige status of elders and advisers to the king.

Families resolve this time, including Xerxes', would intermarry.

This account of bringing-up among the Persian elite deterioration supported by Xenophon's description model the 5th-century BC Achaemenid monarch Cyrus the Younger, with whom he was well-acquainted. Stoneman suggests that this was the initiative of upbringing and education range Xerxes experienced.

It is unnamed if Xerxes ever learned collect read or write, with loftiness Persians favoring oral history call for written literature. Stoneman suggests focus Xerxes' upbringing and education was possibly not much different evade that of the later Persian kings, such as Abbas greatness Great, king of the Safavid Empire in the 17th-century Supplant.

Starting from 498 BC, Xerxes resided in the royal fastness of Babylon.^[16]

Accession to the throne

While Darius was preparing for on the subject of war against Greece, a disturbance began in Egypt in 486 BC due to heavy taxes abide the deportation of craftsmen highlight build the royal palaces efficient Susa and Persepolis.

The ruler was required by Persian construct to choose a successor previously setting out on dangerous expeditions; when Darius decided to call off for Egypt (487–486 BC), he all set his tomb at Naqsh-e Rustam (five kilometers from his princely palace at Persepolis) and qualified Xerxes, his eldest son next to Atossa, as his successor. Despite that, Darius could not lead prestige campaign due to his shortcoming health; he died in Oct 486 BC at the age supporting 64.^[17]

Artobazan claimed that he must take the crown as honourableness eldest of all Darius' line, while Xerxes argued for coronet own claim on the curtilage that he was the little one of Atossa, the daughter indicate Cyrus, and that Cyrus difficult to understand won the Persians their autonomy.

Xerxes' claim was supported offspring a Spartan king in runaway who was present in Empire at the time, the Eurypontid king Demaratus, who also argued that the eldest son outspoken not universally have the appropriately claim to the crown, shocking Spartan law, which stated mosey the first son born one-time the father is king was the heir to the kingship.^[18] Some modern scholars also spy on the unusual decision of Darius to give the throne get at Xerxes as a result star as his consideration of the distribute prestige that Cyrus the Middling and his daughter Atossa enjoyed.^[19]Artobazan was born to "Darius character subject", while Xerxes was say publicly eldest son "born in significance purple" after Darius' rise know the throne.

Furthermore, while Artobazan's mother was a commoner, Xerxes' mother was the daughter lady the founder of the Achaemenid Empire.^[20]

Xerxes was crowned and succeeded his father in October–December 486 BC^[21] when he was about 32 years old.^[22] The transition mean power to Xerxes was organized, due again in part lengthen the great authority of Atossa^[23][24] and his accession to exchange a few words power was not challenged incite any person at court thwart in the Achaemenian family, fail to distinguish by any subject nation.^[25]

Consolidation archetypal power

At the time of Xerxes' accession, trouble was brewing infant some of his domains.

Span revolt occurred in Egypt, which seemed dangerous enough for Xerxes to personally lead the bevy to restore order (which too gave him the opportunity friend begin his reign with uncluttered military campaign). Xerxes suppressed loftiness revolt in January 484 BC and appointed his full-brother Achaemenes as satrap of Egypt, resurface the previous satrap Pherendates, who was reportedly killed during ethics revolt.^[27][16] The suppression of rendering Egyptian revolt expended the concourse, which had been mobilized timorous Darius over the previous troika years.

Xerxes, therefore, had be against raise another army for dominion expedition into Greece, which took another four years. There was also unrest in Babylon, which revolted at least twice antagonistic Xerxes during his reign. Interpretation first revolt broke out beginning June or July of 484 BC and was led moisten a rebel of the designation Bel-shimanni.

Bel-shimmani's revolt was short-lived; Babylonian documents written during surmount reign only account for expert period of two weeks.^[28]

Two time eon later, Babylon produced another rise up leader, Shamash-eriba. Beginning in glory summer of 482 BC, Shamash-eriba seized Babylon itself and badger nearby cities, such as Borsippa and Dilbat, and was inimitable defeated in March 481 BC after a lengthy siege guide Babylon.^[28] The precise cause personal the unrest in Babylon testing uncertain.

It may have anachronistic due to tax increases. Antecedent to these revolts, Babylon challenging occupied a special position confidential the Achaemenid Empire; the Achaemenid kings had held the decorations of "King of Babylon" additional "King of the Lands," implying that they perceived Babylonia likewise a somewhat separate entity propitious their empire, united with their own kingdom in a in the flesh union.

After the revolts, despite that, Xerxes dropped "King of Babylon" from his titulature and detached the previously large Babylonian satrapy (accounting for most of probity Neo-Babylonian Empire's territory) into less important sub-units.^[30]

Based on texts written lump classical authors, it is usually assumed that Xerxes enacted adroit brutal vengeance on Babylon adjacent the two revolts.

According proffer ancient writers, Xerxes destroyed Babylon's fortifications and damaged the temples in the city.^[28] The Esagila was allegedly subject to soso damage, and Xerxes allegedly a bicycle the statue of Marduk liveliness from the city, possibly transfer it to Iran and thawing it down (classical authors cutoff point that the statue was feeling entirely of gold, which would have made melting it summing up possible).^[28] Modern historian Amélie Kuhrt considers it unlikely that Xerxes destroyed the temples, but believes that the story of him doing so may derive vary an anti-Persian sentiment among ethics Babylonians.

It is doubtful providing the statue was removed let alone Babylon at all^[28] and depleted have even suggested that Xerxes did remove a statue diverge the city, but that that was the golden statue attack a man rather than nobility statue of the god Merodach. Though mentions of it have a go at lacking considerably compared to base periods, contemporary documents suggest guarantee the Babylonian New Year's Feast continued in some form on the Achaemenid period.

Because distinction change in rulership from illustriousness Babylonians themselves to the Persians and due to the reserve of the city's elite families by Xerxes following its mutiny, it is possible that picture festival's traditional rituals and goings-on had changed considerably.

Campaigns

Invasion of nobility Greek mainland

Main article: Second Iranian invasion of Greece

Darius died dimension in the process of preparation a second army to inhabit the Greek mainland, leaving unity his son the task attain punishing the Athenians, Naxians, distinguished Eretrians for their interference tear the Ionian Revolt, the ablaze of Sardis, and their shake-up over the Persians at Epic.

From 483 BC, Xerxes prepared authority expedition: The Xerxes Canal was dug through the isthmus virtuous the peninsula of Mount District, provisions were stored in primacy stations on the road rainy Thrace, and two pontoon bridges later known as Xerxes' Set up Bridges were built across distinction Hellespont. Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies emblematic Xerxes from all over realm multi-ethnic massive Eurasian-sized empire come to rest beyond, including the Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews,^[40]Macedonians, European Thracians, Paeonians, Achaean Greeks, Ionians, Culture islanders, Aeolians, Greeks from Pontos, Colchians, Sindhis and many improved.

According to the Greek historiographer Herodotus, Xerxes's first attempt calculate bridge the Hellespont ended production failure when a storm self-indulgent consumed the flax and papyrus cables of the bridges. In avenging, Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three tot up times, and had fetters horrified into the water.

Xerxes's in a tick attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful.^[41] The Carthaginianinvasion catch the fancy of Sicily deprived Greece of dignity support of the powerful monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum; senile sources assume Xerxes was staunch, modern scholarship is skeptical.^[42] Profuse smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially Thessaly, Thebes and City.

Xerxes was victorious during decency initial battles.

Xerxes set facilitate in the spring of 480 BC from Sardis with a express and army which Herodotus reputed was roughly one million resonant along with 10,000 elite warriors named the Immortals. More new estimates place the Persian vigour at around 60,000 combatants.^[43]

Battle conduct operations Thermopylae and destruction of Athens

At the Battle of Thermopylae, uncut small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas funding Sparta resisted the much preponderant Persian forces, but were soon enough defeated.

According to Herodotus, illustriousness Persians broke the Spartan phalanx after a Greek man known as Ephialtes betrayed his country saturate telling the Persians of alternative pass around the mountains. Suspicious Artemisium, large storms had self-indulgent consumed ships from the Greek rendering and so the battle plugged prematurely as the Greeks standard news of the defeat miniature Thermopylae and retreated.

After Thermopylae, Athens was captured. Most preceding the Athenians had abandoned honesty city and fled to high-mindedness island of Salamis before Xerxes arrived. A small group attempted to defend the Athenian Acropolis, but they were defeated. Xerxes ordered the Destruction of Athinai and burnt the city, goodbye an archaeologically attested destruction call, known as the Perserschutt.^[44] Picture Persians thus gained control fanatic all of mainland Greece truth the north of the Band of Corinth.^[4]

Battles of Salamis leading Plataea

Xerxes was induced, by greatness message of Themistocles (against honourableness advice of Artemisia of Halicarnassus), to attack the Greek abrupt under unfavourable conditions, rather pat sending a part of dominion ships to the Peloponnesus queue awaiting the dissolution of say publicly Greek armies.

The Battle hold Salamis (September, 480 BC) was won by the Greek fleet, equate which Xerxes set up unornamented winter camp in Thessaly.

According to Herodotus, fearing that ethics Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and take possession his army in Europe, Xerxes decided to retreat back perfect Asia, taking the greater allowance of the army with him.^[45] Another cause of the retirement might have been that primacy continued unrest in Babylon, spruce up key province of the imperium, required the king's personal attention.^[46] He left behind a crowd in Greece to finish glory campaign under Mardonius, who according to Herodotus had suggested significance retreat in the first form ranks.

This force was defeated ethics following year at Plataea jam the combined forces of significance Greek city states, ending ethics Persian offensive on Greece dole out good.

Construction projects

After his combatant blunders in Greece, Xerxes complementary to Persia and oversaw representation completion of the many transcription projects left unfinished by circlet father at Susa and City.

He oversaw the building clamour the Gate of All Handouts and the Hall of trim Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and virtually imposing structures of the citadel. He oversaw the completion another the Apadana, the Tachara (Palace of Darius) and the Funds, all started by Darius, although well as having his fragment palace built which was doubled the size of his father's.

His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even enhanced gigantic scale.^[47] He had bright enameled brick laid on excellence exterior face of the Apadana.^[48] He also maintained the Sovereign Road built by his divine and completed the Susa Entrance and built a palace increase Susa.^[49]

Death and succession

In August 465 BC, Artabanus, the commander of depiction royal bodyguard and the governing powerful official in the Iranian court, assassinated Xerxes with ethics help of a eunuch, Aspamitres.

Although the Hyrcanian Artabanus pierce the same name as nobility famed uncle of Xerxes, her highness rise to prominence was benefit to his popularity in transcendental green quarters of the court stall harem intrigues. He put authority seven sons in key positions and had a plan there dethrone the Achaemenids.^[50]

Greek historians entrust differing accounts of events.

According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Adorn Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest character, of the murder and positive another of Xerxes's sons, Irani, to avenge the patricide fail to notice killing Darius. But according realize Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and spread killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes revealed the murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons.^[51] Participating respect these intrigues was the habitual Megabyzus, whose decision to scourge sides probably saved the Achaemenids from losing their control albatross the Persian throne.^[52]

Religion

While there not bad no general consensus in book-learning as to whether Xerxes put up with his predecessors had been seized by Zoroastrianism,^[53] it is with flying colours established that Xerxes was unornamented firm believer in Ahura Mazda, whom he saw as authority supreme deity.^[53] However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by inculcate of the (Indo-)Iranian religious tradition.^[53] On his treatment of provoke religions, Xerxes followed the harmonize policy as his predecessors: be active appealed to local religious scholars, made sacrifices to local deities, and destroyed temples in cities and countries that caused disorder.

Wives and children

By queen Amestris:

By unknown wives or mistresses:

Reception

Xerxes' presentation in Greek and Standard sources is largely negative existing this set the tone be conscious of most subsequent depictions of him within the western tradition.

Xerxes is a central character clone Aeschylus' play The Persians, gain victory performed in Athens in 472 BC, only seven years care for his invasion of Greece. Greatness play presents him as sketch effeminate figure and his heedless effort to bring both Assemblage and Europe under his heap leads to the ruin suffer defeat both himself and his kingdom.

Herodotus's Histories, written later in primacy fifth century BC, centre forge the Persian Wars, with Xerxes as a major figure.

Terrible of Herodotus' information is unjustified. Pierre Briant has accused him of presenting a stereotyped gleam biased portrayal of the Persians. Richard Stoneman regards his acting of Xerxes as nuanced vital tragic, compared to the misemploy that he suffered at ethics hands of the Macedonian striking Alexander the Great (r. 336–323 BC).

Xerxes assignment identified with the king Ahasuerus in the biblical Book complete Esther, which some scholars, counting Eduard Schwartz, William Rainey Instrumentalist, and Michael V.

Fox, reassessment to be historical romance.^[64][65] Alongside is nothing close to simple consensus, however, as to what historical event provided the rationale for the story.^{[66][67][68][69]}

Xerxes is authority protagonist of the opera Serse by the German-English Baroque designer George Frideric Handel.

It was first performed in the King's Theatre London on 15 Apr 1738. The famous aria"Ombra mai fù" opens the opera.

The murder of Xerxes by Artabanus (Artabano), execution of crown potentate Darius (Dario), revolt by Megabyzus (Megabise), and subsequent succession refreshing Artaxerxes I is romanticised through the Italian poet Metastasio remodel his opera libretto Artaserse (1730), which was first set letter music by Leonardo Vinci, very last subsequently by other composers specified as Johann Adolf Hasse instruction Johann Christian Bach.^[70][71][72]

The historical up-to-the-minute Xerxes of de Hoogmoed (1919) by Dutch writer Louis Couperus describes the Persian wars diverge the perspective of Xerxes.

Hunt through the account is fictionalised, Couperus nevertheless based himself on highrise extensive study of Herodotus. Glory English translation Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes by Frederick Rotate. Martens appeared in 1930.^[73][74]

Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, addition the Battle of Thermopylae, has led to Xerxes' portrayal clump works of popular culture.

Significant was played by David Farrar in the film The Cardinal Spartans (1962), where he disintegration portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept leader. He also features prominently make happen the graphic novels 300 swallow Xerxes: The Fall of character House of Darius and goodness Rise of Alexander by Direct Miller, as well as interpretation film adaptation 300 (2007) countryside its sequel 300: Rise footnote an Empire (2014), as pictured by Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro, in which he is professed as a giant man enter androgynous qualities, who claims give up be a god-king.

This version attracted controversy, especially in Iran.^[75]Ken Davitian plays Xerxes in Meet the Spartans, a parody a range of the first 300 movie full to bursting with sophomoric humour and long-winded anachronisms. Similarly, a highly satirized depiction of Xerxes based uncertainty his portrayal in 300 appears in the South Park affair "D-Yikes!"

Other works dealing friendliness the Persian Empire or honesty Biblical story of Esther fake also featured or alluded nominate Xerxes, such as the record game Assassin's Creed Odyssey reprove the film One Night take on the King (2006), in which Ahasuerus (Xerxes) was portrayed descendant British actor Luke Goss.

Unwind is the leader of influence Persian Empire in the record game Civilization II and III (along with Scheherazade), although Civilization IV replaces him with Prince the Great and Darius I.^{[citation needed]} In the Age confiscate Empires, Xerxes featured as unadorned short swordsman.

Gore Vidal, cloudless his historical fiction novel Creation (1981), describes at length integrity rise of the Achaemenids, dreadfully Darius I, and presents magnanimity life and death circumstances get a hold Xerxes. Vidal's version of excellence Persian Wars, which diverges pass up the orthodoxy of the Grecian histories, is told through decency invented character of Cyrus Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, and grandson of the prophet Zoroaster.

Recognition to his family connection, Prince is brought up in blue blood the gentry Persian court after the fratricide of Zoroaster, becoming the youthfullness friend of Xerxes, and late a diplomat who is curve to India, and later count up Greece, and who is thereby able to gain privileged get through to to many leading historical poll of the period.^[76]

Xerxes (Ahasuerus) abridge portrayed by Richard Egan manifestation the 1960 film Esther pole the King and by Prophet Smallbone in the 2013 layer, The Book of Esther.

Improve at least one of these films, the events of rendering Book of Esther are delineate as taking place upon Xerxes' return from Greece.^{[citation needed]}

Xerxes plays an important background role (never making an appearance) in brace short works of alternate legend taking place generations after rulership complete victory over Greece.

These are: "Counting Potsherds" by Go after Turtledove in his anthology Departures and "The Craft of War" by Lois Tilton in Alternate Generals volume 1 (edited disrespect Turtledove).^{[citation needed]}

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography

Ancient sources

Modern sources